https://doi.org/10.4081/ripppo.2021.537
Dreaming in quarantine: linguistic analysis of referential process of dreams during COVID-19 pandemic lockdown
Submitted: March 12, 2021
Accepted: April 24, 2021
Published: August 24, 2021
Accepted: April 24, 2021
Abstract Views: 2817
PDF: 643
HTML: 102
HTML: 102
Publisher's note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Authors
The spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) became a collective trauma adversely affecting physical and psychological health. The impact of this trauma made itself manifest in a myriad of ways, including through dreams. This study aimed to explore the Referential Process (RP, Bucci, 2021) of dreams reported during quarantine. Dream samples were collected through a social blog. Linguistic analysis and clinical evaluation were conducted to explore the group’s collective elaboration of a shared traumatic experience. Sixty-eight people (22 males; mean age 26.16 ds. 7.68) contributed to a social-blog, writing their dreams. 91 dreams were collected and transcribed using transcription rules for the Discourse Attributes Analysis Program (DAAP). Linguistic measures of RP were applied and a statistical cluster analysis was performed. In addition, each dream was evaluated by trained judges on three specific qualities of the RP (Arousal, Symbolizing, and Reflection/Reorganizing). Clinical judges in a double-blinded method reached reliable scoring (Arousal α.874 ICC 0.701; Symbolizing α.783 ICC 0.671; Reflection/reorganization α.884 ICC 0.758). Cluster Analysis yielded three dream clusters. 26 dreams fell under a cluster defined as a symbolizing process (Cluster A); 16 into a cluster defined as arousal of emotional activation (Cluster B); and 49 dreams fell into a cluster defined as Reflection/Reorganizing elaboration (Cluster C). Each cluster showed specific linguistic features. The dreams collected through a blog showed a Referential Process that is similar to that found in psychotherapy process. Results suggests that writing dreams can play different functions in processing and integrating social traumatic experience.
Barrett, D. (2020). Dreams about COVID-19 versus normative dreams: Trends by gender. Dreaming, 30(3), 216-221. doi: 10.1037/drm0000149
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/drm0000149
Ben-Meir, M., Bucci, W., & Bers, S.A. (2009). The language of anorexia nervosa: implications for the ‘talking cure’. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 57(1), 181-187. doi: 10.1177/00030651090570011002
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00030651090570011002
Birksted-Breen, D. (2020). Writing in the time of Covid-19. The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 101(3), 433-435. doi: 10.1080/00207578.2020.1764749
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00207578.2020.1764749
Bucci, W., Kabasakalian, R., & the Referential Activity Research Group. (2004). Instructions for scoring Referential Activity (RA) in transcripts of spoken narrative texts. Ulmer Textbank, Ulm, Germany.
Bucci, W. (2008). The role of bodily experience in emotional organization. New perspectives on the multiple code theory. In F. S. Anderson (Eds), Bodies in Treatment. New York, NY: Analytic Press.
Bucci, W. (2021). Overview of the Referential Process: The Operation of Language Within and Between People. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 50(1), 3-15. doi: 10.1007/s10936-021-09759-2
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-021-09759-2
Christian, C., Hoffman, L., Bucci, W., Crimins, M., & Worth, M. (2010). Symbolization and emotional engagement in mothers’ reports of childcare activities. International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies, 7(1), 22-39. doi: 10.1002/aps.23
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aps.234
De Gennaro, L., Ferrara, M., Cristiani, R., Curcio, G., Martiradonna, V., & Bertini, M. (2003). Alexithymia and Dream Recall Upon Spontaneous Morning Awakening. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(2), 301-306. doi: 10.1097/01.PSY.0000058373.50240.71
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/01.PSY.0000058373.50240.71
Di Trani, M., Mariani, R., Renzi, A., Greenman, P.S. & Solano, L. (2018). Alexithymia according to Bucci’s multiple code theory: A preliminary investigation with healthy and hypertensive individuals. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 91(2), 232-247. doi: 10.1111/papt.12158
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12158
Freud, S. (1900). The Interpretation of Dreams. London: Hogarth Press.
Freud, S. (1962). Civilization and its discontents. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co.
Gori, A., Topino, E., & Di Fabio, A. (2020). The protective role of life satisfaction, coping strategies and defense mechanisms on perceived stress due to COVID-19 emergency: A chained mediation model. PLoS One, 15(11), e0242402. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242402
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242402
Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B.J., & Anderson, R.E. (2009). Multivariate data analysis. New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall.
Hartmann, E., & Basile, R. (2003). Dream imagery becomes more intense after 9/11/01. Dreaming, 13(2), 61-66. doi: 10.1023/A:1023398924124
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023398924124
Hoffmann, L., Algus, J., Braun, W., Bucci, W., & Maskit, B. (2013). Treatment notes: objective measures of language style point to clinical insights. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 61(3), 535-568. doi: 10.1177/0003065113489026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0003065113489026
Hopper, E. & Weinberg, H. (2011). The Social Unconscious in Persons, Groups and Societies: Mainly Theory (Vol.1). London (UK): Karnac Books.
Iorio, I., Sommantico, M., & Parrello, S. (2020). Dreaming in the time of COVID-19: A quali-quantitative Italian study. Dreaming, 30(3), 199-215. doi: 10.1037/drm0000142
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/drm0000142
Killgore, W. D. S., Cloonan, S. A., Taylor, E.C., & Dailey, N.S. (2020). Loneliness: A signature mental health concern in the era of COVID-19, Psychiatry Research, 290, 113117. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113117.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113117
Kingsley, G. (2010). The clinical validation of measures of the referential process. Dissertation Abstracts International: The Sciences and Engineering, 70, 9-B.
Kleinberg, B., Vegt, I., & Mozes, M. (2020). Measuring Emotions in the COVID-19 Real World Worry Dataset. ArXiv, abs/2004.04225.
Jepson, L., & Bucci, W. (1999). Object relations and referential activity in physically abused adolescents. Adolescence, 34, 780-792. PMID: 10730703
Lahire, B. (2020). The Sociological Interpretation of Dreams. Cambridge (UK): Polity Press.
Lambert, A., Cayouette-Remblière, J., Guéraut, É., Le Roux, G., Bonvalet, C., Girard, V. & Langlois, L. (2020). Neighbourliness during lockdown in France. Population & Societies, 578(6), 1-4. doi: 10.3917/popsoc.578.0001
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3917/popsoc.578.0001
Lane, R.D., Ryan, L., Nadel, L. & Greenberg, L. (2015). Memory reconsolidation, emotional arousal, and the process of change in psychotherapy: New insights from brain science. The Behavioral and Brain Science, 38(1). doi: 10.1017/S0140525X14000041.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X14000041
Lawrence, W.G. (1998). Social dreaming as a tool of consultancy and action research. In W.G. Lawrence (Ed.), Social Dreaming at Work. London: Karnak Book.
LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The Emotional Brain. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Lumley, M. A., & Bazydlo, R. A. (2000). The relationship of alexithymia characteristics to dreaming. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 48(6), 561-567. doi: 10.1016/S0022-3999(00)00096-9
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(00)00096-9
MacKay, C., & DeCicco, T. L. (2020). Pandemic dreaming: The effect of COVID-19 on dream imagery, a pilot study. Dreaming, 30(3), 222-234. doi: 10.1037/drm0000148
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/drm0000148
Margherita, G., Gargiulo, A., & Martino, M. L. (2015). Dream narration in healthy and at-risk pregnancy. Dreaming, 25(2), 88-102. doi: 10.1037/a0038884
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038884
Mariani, R., Maskit, B., Bucci, W., & De Coro, A. (2013). Linguistic measures of the referential process in psychodynamic treatment: the English and Italian versions. Psychotherapy Research, 23(4), 430-447. doi: 10.1080/10503307.2013.794399
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2013.794399
Maskit, B. (2021). Overview of Computer Measures of the Referential Process. Journal of Psycholinguist Research, 50, 29-49. doi: 10.1007/s10936-021-09761-8
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-021-09761-8
Maskit, B. (2014). The Discourse Attributes Analysis Program (DAAP) Operating Instructions. figshare. doi: 10.6084/m9.figshare.947740
Masiero, M., Mazzocco, K., Harnois, C., Cropley, M., & Pravettoni, G. (2020). From Individual To Social Trauma: Sources Of Everyday Trauma In Italy, The US And UK During The Covid-19 Pandemic. Journal of Trauma Dissociation, 12, 1-7. doi: 10.1080/15299732.2020.1787296.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2020.1787296
Miermont-Schilton, D., & Richard, F. (2020). The current sociosanitary coronavirus crisis: remote psychoanalysis by Skype or telephone. The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 101(3), 572-579. doi: 10.1080/00207578.2020.1773633
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00207578.2020.1773633
Miller, K.E., Brownlow, J.A., Woodward, S., & Gehrman, P.R. (2017). Sleep and Dreaming in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports, 19(10), 71. doi: 10.1007/s11920-017-0827-1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0827-1
Mota, N.B., Weissheimer, J., Ribeiro, M., de Paiva, M., Avilla-Souza, J., Simabucuru, G., Chaves, M.F., Cecchi, L., Cirne, J., Cecchi, G., Rodrigues, C., Copelli, M., & Ribeiro, S. (2020). Dreaming during the Covid-19 pandemic: Computational assessment of dream reports reveals mental suffering related to fear of contagion. PLoS One, 15(11), e0242903. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242903.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242903
Museum of London (2020). Museum of Dreams project (Creator Sliwinski, S.). Retrieved from: https://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/news-room/press-releases/museum-london-collect-covid-dreams
Negri, A., Andreoli, G., Mariani, R., De Bei, F., Rocco, D., Greco, A., & Bucci, W. (2020). First Validation of the Referential Process Post session Scale - Therapist version (RPPS-T). Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 17(6), 319-329. doi: 10.36131/cnfioritieditore20200601
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/t80281-000
Negri, A., & Mariani, R. (2015). Livelli e codici multipli della mente, ovvero vincoli e possibilità della nostra relazione con il mondo. Ricerca Psicoanalitica, 26(3), 37-53. doi: 10.4081/rp.2015.345
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3280/RPR2015-003004
Negri, A., Esposito, G., Mariani, R., Savarese, M., Belotti, L., Squitieri, B., & Bucci, W. (2018). The Italian weighted reflection and reorganization list (I-WRRL): A new linguistic measure detecting the third phase of the referential process. Paper presented at: XII Congresso Nazionale della Società per la Ricerca in Psicoterapia SPR-Italia, Palermo, Italy.
Neri, C. (2004). Presentazione del metodo e della tecnica del Social Dreaming. Relazione sui workshops tenuti a Lem-al-dar, Mauriburg, Raissa e Clarice Town. In W.G. Lawrence (Ed.), Esperienze nel Social Dreaming. Roma: Borla.
Osserman, J., & Lê, A. (2020). Waiting for other people: a psychoanalytic interpretation of the time for action. Wellcome Open Research, 5, 133. doi: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.15959.1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.15959.1
Pesonen, A. K., Lipsanen, J., Halonen, R., Elovainio, M., Sandman, N., Makela, J. M., Antila, M., Béchard, D., Ollila, H.M., & Kuula, L. (2020). Pandemic dreams: network analysis of dream content during the COVID-19 lockdown. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2569. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573961
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573961
Schredl, M., & Piel, E. (2006). War‐Related Dream Themes in Germany from 1956 to 2000. Political Psychology, 27(2), 299-307. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2006.00008.x
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2006.00008.x
Schredl, M. (2012). Continuity in studying the continuity hypothesis of dreaming is needed. International Journal of Dream Research, 5, 1-8. doi: 10.11588/ijodr.2012.1.9306
Severino, S.K., Bucci, W., & Creelman, M.L. (1989). Cyclical changes in emotional information processing in sleep and dreams. Journal of American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 17(4), 555-577. doi: 10.1521/jaap.1.1989.17.4.555.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1521/jaap.1.1989.17.4.555
Solms, M. (2001). The Interpretation of Dreams and the Neurosciences. Psychoanalysis and History, 3. doi: 10.3366/pah.2001.3.1.79.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3366/pah.2001.3.1.79
Soraci, P., Ferrari, A., Abbiati, F.A., Del Fante, E., De Pace, R., Urso, A., & Griffiths, M.D. (2020). Validation and Psychometric Evaluation of the Italian Version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 4, 1-10. doi: 10.1007/s11469-020-00277-1.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00277-1
Souza, J. C., Pettengill, E. C., & Pettengill, C. A. (2020). Psychosocial Aspects of Quarantine, Social Isolation and Social Distance. Psychology, 11(8), 1200-1214. doi: 10.4236/psych.2020.118080
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2020.118080
Taylor, G. J. (1987). Psychosomatic medicine and contemporary psychoanalysis. Madison, CT: International Universities Press.
Townsend, S. S. M., Eliezer, D., & Major, B. (2013). The embodiment of meaning violations. In K. D. Markman, T. Proulx, & M. J. Lindberg (Eds.), The psychology of meaning. American Psychological Association. doi: 10.1037/14040-019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/14040-019
Venuleo, C., Gelo, C. G. O., & Salvatore, S. (2020). Fear, affective semiosis, and management of the pandemic crisis: COVID-19 as semiotic vaccine? Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 17(2), 117-130. doi: 10.36131/CN20200218
Whelton, W.J. (2004). Emotional processes in psychotherapy: evidence across therapeutic modalities. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 11(1), 58-71. doi: 10.1002/cpp.392
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.392
Zhou, Y., Maskit, B., Bucci, W., Fishman, A., & Murphy, S. (2021). Development of WRRL: A New Computerized Measure of the Reflecting/Reorganizing Function. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 50, 51-64. doi: 10.1007/s10936-021-09762-7
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-021-09762-7
How to Cite
Mariani, R., Monaco, S., Christian , C., & Di Trani, M. (2021). Dreaming in quarantine: linguistic analysis of referential process of dreams during COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome, 24(2). https://doi.org/10.4081/ripppo.2021.537
Copyright (c) 2021 the Author(s)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
PAGEPress has chosen to apply the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0) to all manuscripts to be published.
Similar Articles
- Stefano Carrera, Guia Pandolfi, Jee Yun Cappelletti, Walter Padoani, Silvia Salcuni, Oriented mentalization-based treatment for borderline personality disorder patients: preliminary results at Camposampiero Mental Health Center , Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome: Vol. 21 No. 3 (2018)
- Giovanna Esposito, Ulrich Schultz-Venrath, Introduction , Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome: Vol. 25 No. 3 (2022): SPECIAL ISSUE: "Group psychotherapy: between settled benchmarks and new horizons"
- Elena Faccio, Francesca Turco, Antonio Iudici, Self-writing as a tool for change: the effectiveness of a psychotherapy using diary , Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome: Vol. 22 No. 2 (2019)
- Javier Morán, M. Francisca Díaz, Claudio Martínez, Carlos Varas, Roxana Parra Sepúlveda, The subjective experience of psychotherapists during moments of rupture in psychotherapy with adolescents , Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome: Vol. 22 No. 1 (2019)
- Santo Di Nuovo, What research for what training in psychotherapy? Some methodological issues and a proposal , Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome: Vol. 22 No. 3 (2019)
- Leandro Martín Casari, Mirta Susana Ison, Beatriz Margarita María Gómez, Personal style of the therapist and personality dimensions in a sample of Argentinian therapists , Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome: Vol. 22 No. 2 (2019)
You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.
